Q: I'm worried my grades won't be enough. Is "ABA" just a fancy name for writing a personal statement? A: Not quite. Think of it as a structured way to show evidence of your interests, strengths, and achievements - and to make it easy for admissions to verify what you're claiming.
TL;DR
ABA is not a rescue essay. It is an evidence package: make one clear claim, attach proof, explain what it means, and show why it fits the course.
Quick decision map
If you need...
Start here
A university-by-university snapshot
Quick reference: ABA requirements by university
The basic writing structure
The simplest mental model
Proof before writing
Build your evidence inventory first
Examples by discipline
Before and after examples
Concrete example: what counts as ABA evidence
"I am passionate about computing" is weak because it cannot be checked. "I built a timetable app, tested it with 40 classmates, and improved the alert logic after feedback" is stronger because it gives a panel something specific to verify and discuss.
Status: Last reviewed 2026-01-23. Different universities use slightly different language (ABA / holistic / aptitude-based). Always defer to your target university's official admissions page.
internship role + supervisor contact (if applicable),
leadership role + what you shipped/delivered (not just the title),
community initiative + measurable outcome.
Step C: Write the "one sentence proof" for each
Instead of: "I'm passionate and proactive", write:
"I built ___, tested it with ___ users, and improved ___ based on feedback."
"I led ___ for ___ weeks and delivered ___."
"I designed an experiment to measure ___ and learned ___ when it failed the first time."
You'll use these sentences in your short answers.
4 | A 200-word short answer structure that doesn't sound fake
Avoid abstract terms like "progression", "exposure", "growth mindset" unless you immediately ground them in something concrete.
Try this bullet structure instead:
What I did (1 - 2 lines): the project/activity, your role, and the scope.
What was hard (1 line): the constraint (time, skill gap, people problem).
What I changed (2 - 3 lines): the specific decisions you made.
Result (1 line): outcome with a number if possible.
What I learned (1 - 2 lines): the skill you can reuse in university.
Why this course (1 - 2 lines): connect to the degree in a natural way.
If you want it to sound human: write it like you're explaining it to a senior who is curious, not to a judge.
Before and after: annotated ABA short-answer examples by discipline
The following examples are illustrative composites, not real student submissions. They demonstrate how to apply the claim-proof-meaning-fit structure from the section above.
STEM example: applying to NUS Computing
Weak version
I have always been passionate about technology and computers. From a young age I enjoyed exploring how devices work and I believe this passion will drive me to succeed in a computing degree. I am also a fast learner and adapt well to new environments. During my time in school I took on various tech-related activities and found them very fulfilling. I am confident that with the right opportunities, I will be able to contribute meaningfully to the field of computing and make a positive difference through technology.
Problem: no specific project named - "tech-related activities" tells a panel nothing verifiable. Problem: "passionate" without evidence - the entire response rests on a feeling, not a fact. Problem: unverifiable claim - "fast learner" and "adapt well" cannot be checked against anything in this response.
Strong version
In JC1, I built a bus arrival app for my school's internal timetable system after noticing that students kept missing buses because the official app did not handle our campus shuttle routes. I used React Native and a lightweight Node.js backend, and tested it with 40 classmates over three weeks. The main difficulty was handling edge cases when the shuttle ran early - I had to rewrite the timing logic twice before the alert system was reliable. By the end of the testing period, 35 of 40 users had kept it installed. That debugging process taught me more about systematic problem-solving than any class exercise. NUS Computing's focus on software engineering and systems design is directly where I want to develop that skill further - particularly the modules on software testing and distributed systems.
Works: specific deliverable named - the app, the technology stack, and the context are all concrete. Works: quantified outcome - 35 out of 40 users retained is a verifiable number. Works: direct course connection - names actual NUS Computing modules rather than the degree in the abstract.
Takeaway: One specific project with a real constraint and a real result is worth more than a page of enthusiasm.
Business example: applying to NTU Business
Weak version
I have developed strong leadership skills through my involvement in various school activities. I served as Treasurer of the Student Council, a committee member of the Entrepreneurship Club, and a class representative for two years. These experiences have taught me about working in teams and managing responsibilities. I am interested in business because I want to learn how companies operate and how to create value for people. I believe my leadership background and interest in business make me a good fit for NTU Business.
Problem: titles without outcomes - three roles are listed with no description of what any of them involved or changed. Problem: "interested in business" without grounding - panels already know applicants are interested; they need evidence of commercial thinking. Problem: generic transferable skills claim - "working in teams and managing responsibilities" describes almost every role in every CCA.
Strong version
As President of my school's Investment Club in JC2, I restructured how we ran our paper portfolio sessions after our first semester ended with a 7% loss. I introduced a pre-investment memo format - each member had to write a two-paragraph case for any position before we discussed it - which forced us to articulate our reasoning rather than follow trends. In our second semester we returned 11%, and more importantly, two members caught a significant error in a proposed position because the memo process surfaced an assumption we had not stress-tested. The loss taught me more than the gain: I learned that process design is what separates a group from a team. NTU Business's focus on analytical decision-making and its case methodology directly matches the type of structured thinking I want to develop.
Works: named outcome with context - the 11% return is anchored to a process change, not presented as a raw brag. Works: specific mechanism described - the pre-investment memo is something a panel can ask about at interview. Works: lesson from failure included - acknowledging the 7% loss and explaining what changed shows maturity.
Takeaway: Leadership titles only add evidence when they are attached to a specific decision you made and a specific result that followed.
Humanities example: applying to NUS Political Science
Weak version
I read widely and am very interested in policy. I follow current events closely and enjoy discussing political issues with my peers. I believe that understanding politics is essential for any engaged citizen, and I want to study Political Science so that I can contribute to Singapore's governance in the future. My teachers have told me I am a strong essay writer and I have done well in my General Paper. I am particularly interested in international relations and domestic social policy.
Problem: no specific reading cited - "read widely" is a claim with no evidence attached. Problem: General Paper performance is already on the transcript - the ABA portfolio should add something the academic record cannot show. Problem: vague policy interest - "interested in international relations and domestic social policy" describes the entire discipline, not a distinct perspective.
Strong version
Last year I wrote an independent research essay on Singapore's public housing resale levy - specifically, whether the levy structure creates a meaningful brake on private property speculation or mainly affects upgrading behaviour among lower-income households. My research question came from a disagreement between two secondary sources I read: an NUS sociology paper arguing the levy was redistributive, and a commentary in the Singapore Policy Journal arguing it was regressive. I read the HDB resale statistics from 2018 to 2023 and concluded the evidence was more consistent with the latter argument, though the picture was complicated by the PLH classification. The process of having to take a position and defend it against a counter-argument taught me that policy analysis is not about having an opinion - it is about knowing which evidence bears on the question. NUS Political Science's emphasis on both quantitative and qualitative methods is what I want to use to sharpen that skill.
Works: specific research question - the resale levy framing is precise and shows independent engagement. Works: named sources and data - citing specific papers and HDB statistics makes this verifiable at interview. Works: genuine analytical conclusion - taking a position and acknowledging the complication demonstrates exactly the analytical depth humanities panels want to see.
Takeaway: "I read widely" is a category, not evidence. One specific text you engaged with critically is stronger than a list of books.
Arts example: applying to NTU ADM
Weak version
I have been involved in the visual arts throughout my school life. I participated in the Singapore Youth Festival (SYF) and received a Certificate of Distinction. I have also won prizes in several school art competitions. I am passionate about design and have always enjoyed expressing myself creatively. I am applying to NTU ADM because I want to develop my artistic skills and work in a creative industry after graduation.
Problem: SYF participation without interpretation - a Certificate of Distinction tells a panel your ensemble met a threshold; it does not show individual creative process or intent. Problem: prizes listed without context - school competition results have no shared standard across institutions. Problem: no creative process shown - ADM evaluates how applicants think through a design problem, not just what they have produced.
Strong version
For my JC2 Art coursework, I was given a brief asking us to respond to the theme of "inheritance". My first instinct was to paint a family portrait - I scrapped that after realising it was the first solution every student in the room would reach. Instead I documented my grandmother's recipe cards: the physical deterioration of the paper, her handwriting system for measurements she never standardised, the annotations she added in a different ink when a dish failed. I produced a series of four works combining photographic reproduction with painted intervention - specifically, I painted over the parts of the text that had faded past legibility, which forced me to make a decision about what was recoverable and what was not. The constraint that shaped the series most was working only from the original cards without recreating any element digitally. NTU ADM's emphasis on process documentation and conceptual rigour is what I want to develop - I find that my strongest work comes from constraints, not from open briefs.
Works: specific brief and process documented - the decision to abandon the first idea and explain why shows design thinking, not just execution. Works: named creative constraint - "working only from the original cards without recreating any element digitally" is the kind of constraint-based thinking ADM portfolios reward. Works: connects interest to programme honestly - stating that constraints drive better work is a specific and defensible claim about creative process.
Takeaway: SYF results tell a panel you participated in a high-standard event. Your portfolio should show how you solve a design problem - including the dead ends.
5 | Appraisals: who to ask (and how to make it easy for them)
If you're allowed 1 - 2 appraisals, quality matters more than quantity.
Pick an appraiser who can answer:
what you did,
how you work,
what you're like when things go wrong,
and why they trust you with responsibility.
To make it easy for them, send a one-page brief:
your 2 - 3 themes,
3 proof items you want them to reference,
the course(s) you're applying for,
your timeline and submission deadline.
6 | The "supporting documents" pack (build it once, reuse it)
Keep a folder that's easy to share and easy to verify:
certificates and official results,
portfolio links (GitHub, Notion, Drive) with clear labels,
a 1-page project summary (what it is, what you did, what tools you used),
references/contact details if the application asks for it.
If a document can't be verified, don't build your whole narrative on it.
7 | If you have "nothing" for ABA (what to do in the next 4 - 8 weeks)
You don't need a trophy to have proof.
Pick one small, real project you can finish:
a simple app/site that solves one problem you personally faced,
a short research write-up comparing two approaches,
a community project with a measurable deliverable,
a tutoring/mentoring plan with tracked outcomes.
Then document it properly. The documentation is the proof.
8 | If you want, I can help you turn your activities into a clean ABA pack
Tell me:
the course family you're applying to,
3 - 5 things you've done (even if they feel "small"),
and who could realistically write your appraisal,
…and I can help you turn it into a shortlist of themes + proof + a draft structure that sounds like you.
9 | What a portfolio is and is not
A portfolio is not a scrapbook of everything you have ever done. It is not a certificate file. It is not a highlight reel of your most impressive-sounding titles.
A portfolio is a curated argument. Every item you include should support a specific claim about your readiness for the course you are applying to. If an item cannot be connected to that claim, it belongs in your personal archive - not in your submission.
The best ABA portfolios share two qualities regardless of discipline:
Evidence is verifiable. Certificates, project links, competition results, supervisor contacts - anything that can be checked by an admissions officer.
Evidence is interpreted. You do not just include a certificate. You explain what the experience involved, what you did specifically, and what it demonstrates about your fit for the course.
10 | The portfolio structure that works across disciplines
Before going into discipline-specific advice, here is a framework that applies broadly:
Section A: Core achievements (2 - 3 items)
Your most substantial evidence. These should directly relate to the course. Each item needs: a one-line description, your specific role, the outcome, and a link or document.
Section B: Supporting evidence (2 - 4 items)
Secondary achievements that reinforce your themes. These can be less directly related to the course but should connect to transferable skills (analytical thinking, leadership, sustained commitment).
Section C: Short written responses
Most ABA applications include short-answer questions (NTU: up to 200 words per question; SMU: 600-word essay). These are part of your portfolio, not a separate document. Write them last, after you have identified your evidence, so they are grounded in what you can prove.
Section D: Appraisal (1 - 2 referees)
An appraiser who can speak to what you did and how you work. Not a character reference. A performance reference.
Research or independent investigation
This is the highest-value evidence for a STEM ABA portfolio. It does not need to be a published paper or a university-level project. What matters is that you investigated a question, used a method, and reached a conclusion.
Examples that work:
A science research project for MOE Science Research Programme (SRP) or equivalent - include your report or summary, your mentor's name, and the research question.
An independent experiment you designed (even at home) with a write-up. The write-up proves you understand method.
A data analysis project: you found a dataset, asked a question, and produced a result. Include the code or analysis document.
Examples that do not work:
"I did research on climate change" - without a product, a method, or a mentor to verify.
A school project that every student in your class submitted - unless you had a distinct role or produced something beyond the class requirement.
Competitions with documented results
Mathematics Olympiad (Singapore Mathematical Olympiad, APMO), Physics Olympiad (SPhO), Chemistry Olympiad (IChO selection rounds), Biology Olympiad, computing competitions (NOI, ICPC nationals) - include your result and the official documentation.
For panels, competition results carry weight because they are independently verified and nationally calibrated. If you reached the national team selection stage or higher, that is significant. If you participated but did not place, include it only if it supports a story about how you pursued something difficult beyond the school requirement.
Technical projects
For computing and engineering ABA applications in particular:
A project with a working output (GitHub repository, deployed app, prototype) is strong evidence.
A project that only exists in description form is weak evidence.
Include: what the project does, your specific contribution (especially if it was a team project), the tech stack, and a working link if available.
What STEM portfolios often get wrong
Over-indexing on school CCAs that are not technically substantive. Science Club membership without an individual project is not strong STEM evidence.
Listing competitions without placing, without explanation. If you participated in a selective competition without placing, explain why you entered and what you learned. Otherwise, panels cannot calibrate the significance.
Technical jargon without substance. Describing a project as "using machine learning to predict outcomes" without being able to explain the method or the data source will create problems at interview.
12 | Humanities portfolio (History, Literature, Social Sciences, Geography, Area Studies)
What strong humanities portfolios include
Extended written work
The most direct evidence for a humanities applicant is extended writing that demonstrates analytical depth.
Examples that work:
An H3 research essay or Extended Project Qualification (EPQ) - include the title, the research question, and the word count.
A sustained piece of independent writing: an essay responding to a policy debate, a historiographical comparison, a close reading of a primary source. Include the document.
Published writing: school publications, online essays, op-ed submissions. Include a link or PDF.
Engagement with the field beyond the curriculum
Humanities panels want to know that you read, not just that you study. Relevant evidence:
Books or academic articles you have read on a specific topic, with a brief written reflection showing engagement.
A reading list is not strong evidence. A reflection that shows you can critique an argument is.
Community engagement or advocacy projects
History and social science applicants in particular can benefit from evidence of applying their analytical skills in a real context: policy research for a student government, community heritage project, debate on current affairs.
What matters is that there is a product - a document, a presentation, a report - not just participation.
What humanities portfolios often get wrong
Relying entirely on grades and examination results. For ABA, panels already have your academic record. The portfolio should add something your transcript cannot show.
Listing reading without demonstrating engagement. Saying "I read widely in history" is not evidence. A reflection on a specific book that shows you engaged critically with the argument is.
Writing that is too literary and too little analytical. Humanities students sometimes write beautifully but vaguely. Panels want to see that you can make a clear argument, not just write elegant sentences.
13 | Arts portfolio (Visual Arts, Design, Architecture, Performing Arts)
What strong arts portfolios include
Arts ABA applications - particularly for NUS Architecture, NTU School of Art, Design and Media (ADM), LASALLE, and NAFA - typically have the most explicit portfolio format requirements. Read the official specifications before building anything.
A curated body of work (not a complete archive)
Select 8 - 15 pieces for visual arts/design, or document 3 - 5 significant performances or productions for performing arts. Quality and range matter more than quantity.
What makes a strong curated body of work:
Pieces that show technical development over time, not just your best individual outputs.
Process work alongside finished pieces - sketches, drafts, rehearsal documentation. This shows how you think, not just what you produce.
A short written rationale for each piece or selection, explaining what you were exploring or solving.
Design or architecture portfolios specifically
For SUTD and NUS Architecture:
Include projects that show problem-solving, not only aesthetic output.
Document your design process: initial brief, iterations, what you changed and why.
SUTD's ABA portal accepts digital portfolios. Format them for screen reading - large images with clear captions, minimal text-heavy pages.
Performing arts documentation
For programmes that accept performing arts evidence (Music, Theatre, Dance):
Include a short video reel of 2 - 3 performances. Quality of documentation matters less than quality of performance.
Include a performance record: what you have performed, in what context, in what role.
Awards from MOE Arts Elective Programme (AEP), Singapore Youth Festival (SYF), or equivalent competitions carry weight.
What arts portfolios often get wrong
Submitting too many pieces without editing. A portfolio of 40 pieces with no rationale is harder to assess than 12 pieces with clear intent.
Including school assignments without context. If a piece was done for a class, include it - but note what was the assignment, and explain what you did beyond the minimum.
Not following the technical format. If the faculty specifies a PDF submission at specific dimensions, submit exactly that. A beautiful portfolio in the wrong format signals that you did not read the instructions.
14 | Business portfolio (Finance, Accounting, Marketing, Management)
What strong business portfolios include
Demonstrated commercial awareness
For NUS Business School, NBS NTU, and SMU Lee Kong Chian School of Business, panels want evidence that you understand how businesses actually work - not just that you find business interesting.
Strong evidence:
An internship or part-time role in a business context. Include: the company, your role, what you worked on, and a specific outcome you contributed to.
A business case competition with documented results. Include the competition name, your team's placing, and what your team's proposal argued.
A small business, side project, or social enterprise you have run - even informally. Documented revenue, a product, a customer base, or a service log are all valid evidence.
Analytical work
Business programmes value quantitative reasoning. If you have done any analytical work outside school - financial modelling, data analysis for a student project, research on an industry - include it.
Leadership with measurable outcomes
For business, leadership evidence is expected. The differentiator is whether your leadership produced a specific result. "President of Investment Club" is a title. "Led Investment Club's fund to a 12% return across two semesters, documented in our annual report" is evidence.
What business portfolios often get wrong
Overstating internship experience. If you did a two-week work attachment at a relative's office, describe it accurately. Panels will probe it at interview. "I observed operations" is fine. "I led strategy" is not.
Vague leadership claims. "Improved the club's engagement" is not evidence. A newsletter with subscriber numbers, an event with attendance data, or a financial result is evidence.
Including generic finance knowledge as achievement. Reading about the stock market is not evidence. Having tracked a portfolio (even a paper portfolio) with a documented record is.
15 | ABA portfolio timeline by school year
The single most common ABA portfolio problem is trying to build evidence in the six months before submission. Strong portfolios are assembled over two years, not assembled in one.
A realistic timeline for JC students:
JC1 Term 2 (approximately May - June)
Identify your evidence gaps. Map the course you want to apply to against the four portfolio sections above. Which section is empty? If you are applying for a STEM programme and your only evidence is your report card, the gap is research or project work. If you are applying for Business and your only leadership is a class committee role, the gap is commercial or analytical evidence.
Do this audit now, while you still have time to address it.
JC1 Terms 3 and 4 (July - December)
Build targeted activities. With the evidence gaps identified, the question is how to fill them in the time available. This does not mean joining every available CCA or applying to every competition. It means identifying one or two specific activities that will produce verifiable evidence in the right category.
Examples of targeted actions:
Apply for the MOE Science Research Programme if research is your gap.
Enter a business case competition if commercial awareness is your gap.
Begin a technical project with a documented output if project work is your gap.
Request an extended piece of independent writing from your subject teacher if analytical writing is your gap.
JC2 Term 1 (January - May)
Draft your short-answer responses. By this point your evidence base is largely fixed - what you have done is what you have. Use this term to work out how to present it. Draft answers to the likely short-answer prompts (see the portfolio structure section above). Have a teacher or tutor read them for specificity and coherence.
This is also when you should approach your appraisers. Give them enough time to write a substantive reference - at least four to six weeks. Brief them on the specific evidence you want them to speak to.
JC2 Term 2 (June - August)
Finalise appraisals and verify all links and documents. Check that every piece of evidence is still accessible (GitHub repos, competition result pages, project links). Update your short answers based on any new feedback. Compile your final portfolio document and test it end-to-end before submission.
Note: ABA application windows at NUS, NTU, SMU, and SUTD typically open between July and October of your JC2 year. Check each university's admissions calendar at the start of JC2 and work backwards.
16 | What gets rejected: common weak portfolio constructions
Admissions panels do not always articulate why a portfolio fails to shortlist an applicant - but the patterns are consistent. Three constructions account for most weak portfolios:
Certificates without interpretation
A folder of certificates - participation, completion, achievement - is not a portfolio. Panels cannot assess what you actually did from a certificate. They can only confirm that you attended something.
The certificate is proof of attendance. What you need alongside it is an explanation of what you did in the activity, what specific contribution you made, and what the outcome was.
Example of what this looks like in practice: a Gold award at the Singapore Youth Festival tells a panel that your ensemble performed at a high level. It does not tell them whether you composed, arranged, led rehearsals, or were a section member. The interpretation is what turns a certificate into evidence.
Titles without outcomes
"President of the Mathematics Club." "Captain of the Debate Team." "Chairperson of the Student Welfare Committee."
Titles are not achievements. The question a panel asks when they see a title is: what did this person do in this role, and what changed because of it?
If your portfolio has leadership titles but no described outcomes - no events organised, no results achieved, no decisions made - the title does not add evidence. It adds noise.
Volume without selectivity
Submitting twelve items when the portfolio structure calls for six does not demonstrate thoroughness. It demonstrates that you could not prioritise. Panels allocate limited time to each application. A portfolio that requires them to work to find the most relevant evidence is at a disadvantage compared to one where the strongest items are immediately clear.
Edit ruthlessly. If two items support the same claim, submit the stronger one. If an item cannot be directly connected to the course you are applying for, cut it unless it supports a clear transferable skill.
17 | Cross-university calibration: ABA requirements at a glance
ABA is not a single system - each university runs its own version with different word limits, appraisal counts, and submission formats. Applying to three universities with one portfolio package will produce three suboptimal submissions.
NUS ABA
NTU ABA
SMU ABA
SUTD ABA
Short-answer limit
Varies by question
200 words per question
600-word personal essay + short questions
5 essays ~100 words each
Appraisal count
1 - 2 appraisers
1 - 2 appraisers
1 appraiser
1 appraiser
Portfolio evidence
Supporting documents attached to online form
Supporting documents via online portal
Uploaded documents
Digital portfolio; separate upload portal
Interview
Panel interview post-shortlisting
Panel interview post-shortlisting
Group discussion and/or individual interview
ABA interview; design challenge component for some programmes
Key differentiator
Research and academic depth
Competition results, projects, maker evidence
Community, leadership with outcomes
Design process documentation
Important caveats: requirements change annually and differ between faculties within the same university. The table above reflects the general pattern as of the 2026 intake cycle - verify against each university's official ABA page before you build your submission.
The most consequential difference for students applying to multiple universities: SUTD's five short essays require a fundamentally different approach from NUS and NTU's evidence-plus-questions format. Budget separate preparation time for SUTD.
18 | Polytechnic students: ABA and EAE eligibility
Most of this guide is written with JC students in mind, but polytechnic graduates can also access direct entry to university programmes through ABA-adjacent routes.
NUS and NTU direct entry for poly graduates
Polytechnic students who meet the GPA threshold for their target programme can apply to NUS and NTU through the standard direct entry process, which includes a portfolio review and interview. NUS and NTU assess poly applicants on their GPA, the relevance of their diploma to the target programme, and additional achievements submitted through the same ABA-style evidence process.
The portfolio advice in this guide applies directly: evidence should be specific, verifiable, and interpreted - not a certificate folder.
SIT: Integrated Work Study Programme and direct entry
SIT accepts applications from polytechnic students and its interview process places significant weight on professional readiness. Poly students who have completed industry attachments or internships as part of their diploma are typically well-positioned for SIT's competency-based interview.
SUSS: Enhanced Admissions Exercise (EAE)
SUSS runs an EAE process for polytechnic and ITE students that includes a portfolio component and interview. The EAE portfolio requirements are distinct from NUS/NTU ABA - read the SUSS EAE guidelines separately before applying.
Key difference from JC ABA: Poly applicants typically have more verifiable work experience than JC applicants. The portfolio for a poly applicant should foreground internship outcomes, industry projects, and FYP (Final Year Project) work - which is often the strongest direct evidence of readiness for the target programme.
19 | How to present your portfolio
Format principles
One page per evidence item: description, role, outcome, verification link or document.
Clear document labels: "Evidence 1 - Science Research Project - Summary and Mentor Contact"
No decorative design unless you are applying to an arts or design programme. For STEM and business, clean and readable is correct.
If you are submitting digitally, test every link before submission.
What not to include
Certificates for participation in compulsory school events (e.g., National Day rehearsal)
Generic leadership roles without any described outcome
Anything you cannot talk about confidently in an interview
Duplicate items that support the same claim (pick the stronger one)
One final calibration
Before you finalise your portfolio, ask: if an admissions officer spent five minutes with this document, what would they conclude about my readiness for this course?
If the answer is clear and specific, your portfolio is doing its job. If the answer is vague or generic, it needs another round of editing.
