For Integrated Programme students: Your current school materials, teacher instructions, and assessment scope take precedence because IP topic sequence and depth vary by school. This is an Eclat IP guide, not the O-Level / SEC G3 exam-track guide.
How this chapter applies
Eclat core: fuels, crude oil, homologous series, alkanes, alkenes, cracking, alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, addition and condensation polymers, and recycling form the main route.
School-sensitive extension: more advanced nomenclature, mechanisms, detailed industrial conditions, wider functional groups, and school-specific organic tests should be used only where the current school teaches them.
2027 national comparison: K324 Topic C11 covers the common organic core and explicitly includes biofuels, polyunsaturated oils, margarine manufacture, polyester hydrolysis, and social, economic, and environmental issues in plastics recycling.
Check your school: naming limits, structural-formula conventions, reaction conditions, and polymer notation can differ. Match the current school materials and data sheet.
The core idea is simple: Organic chemistry is pattern recognition by functional group.
Use it as a working check: Identify the homologous series, then recall its general formula, key reaction type, test, and conditions. Alkanes substitute; alkenes add.
Then go one layer deeper: Example: bromine water decolourises with an alkene without ultraviolet light because bromine adds across the carbon-carbon double bond.
What you must know
Fuels/crude oil: finite resource; separated by fractional distillation into refinery gas, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, bitumen. Pollution issues (CO, SO₂, NOₓ, unburnt hydrocarbons, particulates) and catalytic converters. Biofuels as partial alternative.
Homologous series: same general formula, similar chemical properties, gradation of physical properties, differ by CHX2, common functional group. Alkanes general formula CnH2n+2; mainly combustion and substitution with chlorine under UV.
Alkenes: general formula CnH2n; unsaturated C=C → decolourise bromine water; addition reactions (BrX2
Alcohols (−OH), carboxylic acids (−COOH), esters (−COO−): name unbranched members up to C4. Alcohols combust and can be oxidised to carboxylic acids; K324 uses acidified KMnOX4
Unsaturated oils and polymers: hydrogen addition reduces unsaturation and is used to make a more solid product such as margarine. Addition polymers come from alkene monomers; condensation polymers include nylon and Terylene. Recycling can be physical or chemical, including polyester hydrolysis to monomers, and should be evaluated through social, economic, and environmental trade-offs.
Organic reaction route checkpoint
Before naming products, identify the functional group and reaction family. Chain length affects physical properties gradually, but the functional group usually decides the first chemical move.
Starting clue
Likely reaction family
First check
Common trap
Alkane + chlorine or bromine + ultraviolet light
Substitution
Replace one hydrogen atom with one halogen atom, then form hydrogen halide as the other product.
Do not treat it like the alkene bromine-water test; alkane halogenation needs ultraviolet light.
Alkene + bromine water, hydrogen, or steam
Addition
Open the carbon-carbon double bond and add atoms across the two carbon atoms.
Do not write substitution products; the double bond becomes a single bond.
Convert the alcohol functional group toward a carboxylic acid and note orange to green if observation is asked.
Do not describe only combustion just because alcohols burn.
Carboxylic acid + alcohol, heat, acid catalyst
Esterification
Join the acid and alcohol to form an ester plus water.
The ester name starts with the alcohol's alkyl group, then the acid-derived carboxylate name.
Long alkane + heat and catalyst
Cracking
Split into shorter hydrocarbons and make sure at least one alkene appears.
Atom counts still have to balance after the split.
Alkene monomer with a carbon-carbon double bond
Addition polymerisation
Open the double bond and draw the repeat unit with single bonds through the brackets.
Do not show small-molecule loss; that belongs to condensation polymerisation.
Misconception check: a longer carbon chain does not automatically mean a different reaction type. Ask first, "What functional group is present?" Then ask, "What condition or reagent is given?"
Ester name decoder checkpoint
For ester questions, split the name into two parts before drawing the structure or naming the reactants.
Ester name part
Comes from
What it tells you
First word, such as methyl or ethyl
Alcohol
The alkyl group attached to the single-bond oxygen.
Second word ending in -anoate
Carboxylic acid
The carbon chain containing the −COO− group.
Worked check: methyl propanoate comes from methanol and propanoic acid. The methyl part gives CHX3X− on the oxygen side, and the propanoate part gives CHX3CHX2COOX− on the acid side. Put them together as CHX3CHX2COOCHX3.
Misconception check: do not read the ester name from left to right as one continuous carbon chain. The name is a join between an alcohol fragment and an acid fragment.
Detailed notes
Series map: alkanes CnH2n+2, alkenes CnH2n, alcohols CnH2n+2O, carboxylic acids CnH2nOX2; physical properties change gradually with chain length (bp ↑ with size).
Alkanes: mainly combustion and substitution with halogens under UV to haloalkanes. Incomplete combustion yields CO and soot.
Alcohols: combustion; oxidation of primary alcohol (ethanol) to carboxylic acid with acidified KX2CrX2OX7
Carboxylic acids: weak acids; react with metals/carbonates to form salts with effervescence (COX2).
Cracking: thermal + catalyst (alumina/silica) splits long alkanes into shorter alkanes + alkenes (fuels + feedstock).
Polymers: addition polymers from C=C monomers (repeat unit shows single bond through brackets); condensation polymers release small molecules (water). Environmental issues: non-biodegradable; recycling (mechanical or chemical).
Polyunsaturated substances contain more than one carbon-carbon double bond per molecule. Hydrogenation adds hydrogen across some double bonds in unsaturated vegetable oils, raising the melting point and producing a more solid material such as margarine.
Polyester hydrolysis is a chemical recycling route that breaks ester links and can recover monomers. Compare this with physical recycling, which sorts, melts, and reforms compatible plastics but can lose material quality over repeated cycles.
Addition polymer repeat-unit checkpoint
When drawing an addition polymer, focus on the carbon-carbon double bond first. The repeat unit keeps the same atoms as the monomer, but the double bond opens into single bonds that continue through the brackets.
Monomer clue
Repeat-unit move
What to keep attached
Common trap
Ethene, CHX2=CHX2
Change C=C to C-C inside brackets.
Two H atoms stay on each carbon.
Showing HX2 as a by-product.
Propene, CHX2=CHCHX3
Chloroethene, CHX2=CHCl
Open the C=C bond.
The Cl substituent stays attached to the carbon it started on.
Any addition polymer
Draw bonds leaving both ends of the bracket.
The bracketed unit repeats many times, shown by n.
Drawing separate small molecules instead of one repeating chain.
Worked check: propene becomes poly(propene) by opening the C=C bond, not by losing any atoms. The repeat unit is [−CHX2−CH(CHX3)X−]n, with the CHX3 group still attached to every second carbon in the chain.
Misconception check: addition polymerisation has no small molecule by-product. If your answer releases water, hydrogen chloride, or another small molecule, you have switched into condensation polymerisation.
Worked walkthroughs
Bromine test: ethene + bromine water → 1,2-dibromoethane (orange to colourless). Methane + bromine needs UV and gives substitution products slowly.
Hydration vs fermentation: ethene + steam with a phosphoric acid catalyst gives ethanol in a fast, continuous process with a purer product. Fermentation of glucose with yeast in anaerobic conditions gives aqueous ethanol + COX2 in a batch process from a renewable feedstock. For the K324 comparison route, quote reagents and essential conditions; exact temperature and pressure values are not required.
Esterification: ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl ethanoate + water (heat with acid catalyst); note fruity smell.
Polymer repeat unit: from propene to poly(propene)-show bracket with single bonds through and subscript n.
Pitfalls and fixes
Mixing addition vs substitution: alkenes add, alkanes substitute (needs UV).
Missing conditions: HX2/Ni, steam/H₃PO₄, UV for halogenation, acid + heat for esterification/oxidation.
Forgetting isomer details: name/number positions for butenes/butanols at higher level; at IP keep to straightforward chains but note chain vs position isomers exist.
Saying all polymers are addition-distinguish condensation polymers that release water.
Practice drills
Write equations for addition of HX2, BrX2, and steam to propene; name products.
Draw two structural isomers of CX4HX10 and two position isomers of CX4HX8
Plan a lab test to distinguish an alkane and an alkene sample (bromine water conditions).
Given an ester name, draw its structure (e.g., methyl propanoate) and state its parent alcohol/acid.
Quick applications
Combustion: CHX4+2OX2COX2+2HX2O; substitution: CHX4+ClX2CHX3Cl+HCl under UV.
Recycling: thermoplastics can be sorted, melted, and remoulded; chemical recycling can break polymers into feedstock or monomers. Evaluate energy use, sorting cost, contamination, product quality, landfill reduction, and demand for recovered material instead of assuming every recycling route is automatically preferable.
Exam cues
Name chains carefully (longest chain) and number from the end nearest the substituent; include the functional group suffix.
Bromine test must specify conditions: alkane + UV gives substitution (slow), alkene decolourises bromine water without UV (addition).
State catalyst or essential conditions where needed, such as Ni for hydrogenation, phosphoric acid for steam addition, and anaerobic conditions for fermentation. Do not treat exact industrial temperature and pressure values as K324 requirements.
Condensation polymers release small molecules (water), addition polymers do not; show the repeating unit with correct bracket and bond through it.
/Ni, steam with phosphoric acid catalyst). Cracking breaks long alkanes to shorter alkanes + alkenes.
, while some IP schools also use acidified dichromate. Ethanol manufacture compares hydration of ethene with fermentation of glucose by feedstock, purity, rate, and sustainability. Acids are weak acids. Esters form from an acid and alcohol with an acid catalyst.
(decolourises bromine water), steam with phosphoric acid catalyst → alcohols (conditions: high T/P). Unsaturation test uses bromine water.
(orange → green); esterification with carboxylic acids using heat and acid catalyst (fruity smell).
